Tailored performance of additively manufactured titanium TPMS bone scaffold

Abstract

Triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS), exemplified by the Schwarz geometry, provide an optimal platform for bone scaffolds due to their high surface-to-volume ratio, continuous porosity, and bone-analogous mechanical response. Here, titanium TPMS scaffolds were additively manufactured via laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) with precise control over geometric parameters. A data-driven surrogate model, informed by experimental and numerical analyses, was developed to map the relationship between design variables and mechanical performance. The model enabled the design of scaffolds with tailored stiffness matching that of native bone, while revealing the dominant roles of wall thickness and cell size. Porosity varied from 47 % to 68 %, governed inversely by wall thickness, while elastic modulus scaled from 6 to 24 GPa, driven primarily by wall thickness and secondarily by cell size. Yield and ultimate strengths exhibited strong positive correlations with wall thickness, spanning 240–655 MPa and 320–784 MPa, respectively. This study provides a predictive framework for engineering 3D printed titanium scaffolds with targeted mechanical properties, offering a basis for next-generation load-bearing orthopaedic implants.